Pierre Bourdieu, in his theory of artistic fields, speaks of two poles: the autonomous and the heteronomous. The autonomous pole emphasizes the unique and pure characteristics of the artwork, while the heteronomous pole relies on material values, popular opinions, and external factors. The heteronomous pole aligns with the sensibilities of the upper class and is itself divided into two subsections: the bourgeois and the industrial. In the bourgeois subsection, we observe artistic approaches with materialistic and popular inclinations. However, in the industrial part, the focus is purely on economics and appealing to the audience.
Based on Bourdieu’s method in the artistic field and from a comparative perspective, the author and the audience have always represented two opposing poles throughout the history of photography. In Bourdieu’s theory, audiences are influenced by the heteronomous pole, while authors (artists) are influenced by the autonomous one. Photography has always been associated with technical processes and various subject matters, including style and genre, and has invariably dealt with audiences due to its realistic nature, affordability, accessibility, and ease of interpretation.
Bourdieu’s sociology of cultural production is the origin of many key debates in contemporary art sociology. His innovations in French sociology quickly established him as one of the greatest theorists in the social and cultural sciences. He has also contributed writings and theories on photography. In Bourdieu’s sociological model, several core concepts play essential roles, particularly “field” and “classification,” which form the foundation of social structures. Classification is especially important in shaping popular agents within society. A field is defined as a social arena in which struggles for specific interests and access to them occur. In this theory, Bourdieu mentions various networks formed in civilized societies, each with its own system aimed at achieving power. Among these, art also has its own field, which is divided into two poles: autonomous and heteronomous. The autonomous pole is based on pure artistic principles, while the heteronomous pole relies on external factors and places great emphasis on material value. This heteronomous pole is further divided into two parts: bourgeois and industrial. The industrial sector is rife with superficial and trivial elements, and the artist, influenced by public demand and attention, produces work that garners more material value.
Given these descriptions, the field of photography can be mapped onto the two poles of the artistic field. This alignment is based on the types of reception and characteristics categorized according to their social class and dominant or subordinate culture.
The most defining feature of photography is its realism. However, this initial characteristic has been overshadowed by another “power” that interprets photography as a device of global domination. The third feature is its capacity as a means of reproduction. By the late 19th century, photography had begun to majestically record images of the bourgeoisie. Due to its realism, photography was initially kept out of the fine art community until a group of photographers attempted to align it with painting as an art form. Gradually, some broke away and sought to adhere to the essential foundations of the photographic medium and maintain its independence. These became known as “straight” or “autonomous” photographers, also referred to as modern photographers, due to their formalist principles. They had classical rules based on technical and theoretical knowledge of photography and did not rely on any external elements. For them, artistic value was paramount.
In Bourdieu’s theory, he explains that in the heteronomous pole, the arts fall under the influence of other fields—specifically, the commercial one. Thus, in the heteronomous artistic field of photography, photographers are evaluated based on their success in satisfying audiences. The value of their work is measured by the sales of their photographs. The more they can ride the waves of social trends, the more successful they are considered.
This heteronomous field of photography is divided into four sections: realism, artistic styles, the power system, and the popular system, with photographic developments briefly examined in each. It has to be mentioned that in the section on photographic realism, the discussion of the pure and exclusive characteristics of photography is considered. Keeping a photo of recently deceased loved ones as a memento, which was a pastime for people, especially in the 19th century, or capturing an image of oneself to immortalize that moment, are among the prominent examples of realism in photography. Here, the independence of photography from other arts and the recording of a similar narrative regarding the subject are considered. Here, press and news photos are especially prioritized, which attract a large audience. Press photos can be considered the most attractive genre in the world of photography. This genre is a kind of showcase of the photographic medium. Those who have become interested in photography in any way or have known photography must have a large part of press photos in their minds. These photos have played a major role in attracting audiences due to their realism and news reporting characteristics at the same time. In addition to press photos, paparazzi photos, which refer to secret photos of prominent figures, also have a special place in public popularity.
In the section on artistic styles, the characteristics are mentioned where photography inspired by other arts has been successful in attracting an audience. In this context, what is important is the similarity to the art of painting due to its high status, which allowed enthusiasts to raise their social class status. Also, the similarity to the narrative of the show genre in the discussion of entertainment, which presented itself in the form of a collection of photographs. In the power system section, it refers to photographs that were taken in the service of the government or colonial sectors. Many documentary photographers, who were not photographers themselves and were simply from the upper class, photographed the poor to attract the attention of the upper class. On the other hand, photography in the hands of colonial advisors in the colonized areas was also a means of earning money from the indigenous people of those areas. In the popular section, the importance is on the cheapness and accessibility of this medium. Also, attention to people of other races, technical advances in terms of ease of working with the photographic structure, and attracting people to this medium are among the popular sectors.
In the second part of the field, Bourdieu speaks of the autonomous pole—where arts are based on purism. These practitioners value art for its own sake and ignore economic concerns. They allow no external interference. Here, the autonomous field of photography is divided into critical-political and artistic branches, with photographic developments examined briefly in each. In the critical part, what is most important are the leftist groups who believe that art should serve the people. In the artistic part, the role of several people in the independence of photography as a self-reliant art is very important. In this context, photography in various genres places great emphasis on idealism and the soul of the author. In the 20th century, as photography and its various genres became more familiar to the public, it gained significant popularity—largely because, unlike demanding cultural activities like painting or music, photography required little training or skill. It also became part of the everyday cultural consumption of ordinary people.
The aim of this article is to apply Bourdieu’s theory of artistic fields to the historical trajectory of photography in order to answer the question: How can the historical dimensions of photography be matched with Bourdieu’s theory of artistic fields? Adopting a comparative approach, this paper is theoretical-fundamental in nature and follows a descriptive-analytical method. Data were collected from library sources and various websites and analyzed qualitatively. The findings demonstrate the applicability and effectiveness of Bourdieu’s theory of artistic fields in understanding the historical developments of photography.