The Naseri Era (1848–1896), under the reign of Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, represents a pivotal and multifaceted chapter in Iranian history. It was a time when traditional beliefs, systems of authority, and aesthetic standards were challenged by the rapid introduction of modern technologies and ideas. This duality of continuity and change characterizes the intellectual and artistic landscape of the Naseri period. Lithography, which entered Iran in the early nineteenth century, became one of the most transformative media of this period. By enabling the simultaneous reproduction of text and images, lithography made it possible to publish stories, religious narratives, and visual motifs to a much wider audience than ever before.
Of all the subjects represented in lithographed books, Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib (PBUH) occupies a particularly prominent place. As the first imam of the Shia tradition, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), and a symbol of piety and bravery, Imam Ali embodies the core values of Shia identity. For centuries, his life and deeds have been recounted through oral storytelling, epic poetry, and devotional literature. In the nineteenth century, with the advent of lithography, his image entered the realm of mass visual culture. This research sets out to explore how Imam Ali was represented in pictorial sets of lithographed books during the Naser al-Din Shah Qajar era, particularly through recurring themes in illustrations across multiple books.
These illustrations depict recurring themes in lithographed books and refer to visual scenes that appear repeatedly across different works and editions, often with only minor variations. These images, such as Imam Ali killing Amr ibn Abd Wadd, splitting Marḥab with Zulfaqar, or confronting dragons and demons, became recognizable symbols for Shia audiences. Their repetition gave them an almost iconic status, enabling viewers to grasp religious and moral lessons without reading the full texts. Thus, illustrations with recurring themes served as artistic conventions and cultural tools that bolstered Shia identity.
This study aims to understand the nature of illustrations of recurring themes. The investigation begins with a comprehensive introduction to lithographic editions emblematic of the era’s illustrated print culture. These editions are meticulously cataloged according to their visual content, with a particular focus on images of Imam Ali. Using a descriptive-analytical methodology, the study analyzes seventy-five illustrations drawn from twenty-four lithographed editions of six influential texts (Eftekhar-nama-Ḥaydari, Ḥamla-ye Ḥaydari, Tuhfa al-Majalis, Khavaran-nama, the Diwan of Farigh Gilani, and Ṭufan al-buka), and reconstructs the visual vocabulary through which Imam Ali was represented. Preserved in major Tehran libraries, these images are artistic products and cultural documents that reflect the aspirations, anxieties, and devotional practices of nineteenth-century Shia society to some extent.
The methodological framework is qualitative and historical-analytical. It involves three main steps: the identification of relevant lithographed editions, the selection of illustrations that depict Imam Ali, and the categorization of these illustrations into thematic groups of recurring themes. The themes identified include: the heroic duels with enemies such as Amr ibn Abd Wadd, Marḥab, and Ḥarith, encounters with supernatural beings such as demons and dragons, the miraculous infant episode in which Imam Ali slays a dragon from his cradle, and iconic seated portraits of Imam Ali, sometimes accompanied by loyal companions such as Qanbar and Salman al-Farsi.
Through this lens, the research uncovers how repetition itself operated as a cultural mechanism. By encountering the same or similar scenes in different books, audiences developed a shared visual literacy: the ability to immediately recognize Imam Ali, his sword Zulfaqar, and the symbolic framework of his battles. These images thus functioned as visual shorthand for Shia values, reinforcing devotion and establishing a standardized set of imagery.
Some of the facts that can be emerged from this study:
1. A Fusion of Epic and Religious Traditions: Imam Ali’s (PBUH) lithographic representations draw heavily from Persian epic storytelling. His battles with monstrous enemies echo the struggles of Rustam and other heroes of the Shahnameh. Yet, the hero here is unmistakably religious, and his victories are framed as divine acts. This synthesis created a hybrid iconography that resonates with both national and religious identity.
2. Mass Mediation Through Lithography: Lithography introduced a new relationship between images and audiences. Unlike unique and exclusive manuscript paintings, lithographs could be reproduced in large quantities. For the first time, artisans, merchants, and sometimes even ordinary people could access illustrated religious texts. The wide circulation of these texts thus extended Imam Ali’s image beyond the realm of the elite, embedding it within everyday devotional life.
3. Educational and Didactic Function: The illustrations of recurring themes also had a pedagogical role. Many viewers, especially among the semi-literate classes, could grasp the essence of a narrative through the illustrations without needing to read the full text. A scene of Imam Ali slaying a dragon, for instance, communicated both his miraculous power and his role as the defender of faith. In this way, images became an accessible form of religious instruction.
4. The Dual Persona of Imam Ali: These images are striking for their depiction of two seemingly divergent aspects of Imam Ali’s identity. On the one hand, he is portrayed as a compassionate and just leader, as well as the spiritual heir of the Prophet. On the other hand, he is portrayed as a supernatural warrior whose blows with Zulfaqar split bodies and terrify demons. This dual persona reflects a broader cultural synthesis, merging piety and bravery as the two cardinal virtues of the Iranian heroic imagination.
5. Narratives of Good and Evil: Many images depict Imam Ali as a central figure in cosmic struggles between good and evil. These enemies are not just adversaries, but rather, they are the personification of falsehood and corruption. Therefore, his victories symbolize not only military success but also the ultimate triumph of truth, justice, and divine will.
6. The Formation of a Visual Canon: By the late Naseri era, certain scenes had become standardized. The duel with Amr ibn Abd Wadd, the splitting of Marḥab, and the slaying of a dragon were repeated so often that they became iconic images recognizable across the Shia world. This repetition helped solidify a canon of Shia heroic imagery that persists even today in popular art and ritual iconography.
The study points out that lithographed depictions of Imam Ali during the Naseri era were not incidental illustrations but rather deliberate cultural instruments. During a time of transition, they reinforced Shia identity, bridging the old and the new, the textual and the visual, and the epic and the devotional. Lithography amplified their impact, enabling these images to circulate widely and become embedded in collective memory.
Ultimately, the research emphasizes the role of visual media in shaping communal narratives. When mediated through lithography, Imam Ali’s heroic iconography became a cultural anchor for Shia society, embodying the timeless struggle between good and evil, as well as the specific anxieties of 19th-century Iran. These images’ enduring power lies in their ability to transcend time. They serve as both records of artistic practice and living symbols of identity and devotion.